In Europe

welfare state.
    Lubbers , Dr. Rudolphus Franciscus Marie or Ruud Lubbers (b. 1939): Dutch politician who led three successive governments as Prime Minister of the Netherlands 1982–94. Has held many positions in both public and private sectors and was the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 2001–5.
    Maastricht Treaty : a treaty on European economic and monetary union negotiated by the heads of government of the member states of the European Community in December 1991, which came into force in November 1993. It removed the word ‘Economic’ from the name of the community and led to the creation of the
EU
.
    Matwin , Wladek (b. 1916): Polish historian and former politician. A communist since his student days, he became the First Secretary of the Wroclaw Voivodship Party Committee immediately after the
Second World War
. In August 1944, Matwin was a lieutenant in the Red Army and witnessed the Warsaw Uprising first hand.
    Milos č ević , Slobodan (1941–2006): Serbian politician, President of Serbia 1989–97 and President of Yugoslavia 1997–2000. In promoting Serbian nationalism he was a key figure in the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s and the Kosovo War in 1999. Indicted by the United Nations for war crimes in 1999 and found dead in his cell in 2006.
    Mitterand , François (Maurice Marie) (1916–96): French statesman and member of the Socialist Party, President of France 1981–95. As President, he nationalised financial institutions and key industries, raised the minimum wage and decentralised government.
    Monnet , Jean (1888–1979): French political economist, inspirational and strategic thinker. In 1940 he proposed a daring plan to
Winston Churchill
that France and Great Britain become one. Architect of the Schuman Plan to create the European Coal and Steel Community and its first president in 1952.
    Montgomery, Bernard Law , 1 st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, also known as Monty (1887–1976): British Field Marshal and prominent commander of the Allied forces in the
Second World War
. His victory at El Alamein in 1942 against Rommel was a significant Allied success. In 1944, his daring initiative to cross the Rhine at Arnhem, Operation Market Garden, ended in failure.
    Munich Agreement : agreement between Britain, France, Germany and Italy, signed in Munich on 29 September, 1938, under which the Sudetenland in western Czechoslovakia was ceded to Germany.
Hitler
subsequently annexed the remainder of Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland, precipitating the
Second World War
.
    Mussolini , Benito , also known as Il Duce (the leader) (1883–1945): Italian Prime Minister 1922–43 and Fascist dictator. Entered the
Second World War
on the side of
Nazi
Germany in 1940. When the Allies invaded Italy he tried to escape but was captured and executed by Italian communist partisans.
    NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation): international organisation established in 1949 to counter the Soviet military presence in post-war Europe. The strongest military alliance in the world.
    Nazi : Belonging to the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers’ Party) which, under the leadership of
Adolf Hitler
, governed Germany 1933–45. Nazi ideology called for the expansion of Germany and its policies were based on nationalism, racism, anti-communism, antiSemitism and the belief in the superiority of ‘Aryan’ Germans.
    Nicholas II, Czar (1868–1918): last Russian emperor who reigned 1894–1917. Forced to abdicate after the February Revolution in 1917 and shot with his family the following year.
    Nicolson , Sir Harold George (1886–1968): British diplomat, author and politician. Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of Information in
Churchill
's 1940 wartime government. Supported British rearmament and was one of the few to condemn
Chamberlain
and oppose the
Munich Agreement
.
    Night of the Long Knives : the night of Saturday, 30 June, 1934 – and the following day – when the
Gestapo
murdered between one hundred and fifty and two hundred of
Hitler
's political opponents, including almost the entire
SA
leadership.
    October Revolution : in a coup led by
Lenin
in October, 1917, the Russian Bolsheviks seized power from the provisional government established after the February Revolution of the same year. Civil war and the creation of the Soviet Union followed.
    Orwell , George , pen name of Eric Arthur Blair (1903–50): English novelist and adventurer. Best known for his novels
Animal Farm
, a satireon