Physics of the Future: How Science Will Shape Human Destiny and Our Daily Lives by the Year 2100

superconductors were ceramics, previously thought to be unlikely candidates for superconductors, and became superconductors at 92 degrees (Kelvin) above absolute zero. Embarrassingly, they became superconductors at a temperature that was thought to be theoretically impossible.
    So far, the world record for these new ceramic superconductors is 138 degrees (Kelvin) above absolute zero (or –211° F). This is significant, since liquid nitrogen (which costs as little as milk) forms at 77° K (–321° F) and hence can be used to cool these ceramics. This fact alone has drastically cut the costs of superconductors. So these high-temperature superconductors have immediate practical applications.
    But these ceramic superconductors have just whetted the appetite of physicists. They are a giant step in the right direction, but still they are not enough. First, although liquid nitrogen is relatively cheap, you still have to have some refrigeration equipment to cool the nitrogen. Second, these ceramics are difficult to mold into wires. Third, physicists are still bewildered by the nature of these ceramics. After several decades, physicists are not quite sure how they work. The quantum theory of these ceramics is too complicated to solve at the present time, so no one knows why they become superconductors. Physicists are clueless. There is a Nobel Prize waiting for the enterprising individual who can explain these high-temperature superconductors.
    But every physicist knows the tremendous impact that a room temperature superconductor would have. It could set off another industrial revolution. Room temperature superconductors would not require any refrigeration equipment, so they could create permanent magnetic fields of enormous power.
    For example, if electricity is flowing inside a copper loop, its energy dissipates within a fraction of a second because of the resistance of the wire. However, experiments have shown that electricity within a superconducting loop can remain constant for years at a time. The experimental evidence points to a lifetime of 100,000 years for currents inside a superconducting coil. Some theories maintain that the maximum limit for such an electrical current in a superconductor is the lifetime of the known universe itself.
    At the very least, such superconductors could reduce the waste foundin high-voltage electrical cables, thereby reducing the cost of electricity. One of the reasons an electrical plant has to be so close to a city is because of losses in the transmission lines. That is why nuclear power plants are so close to cities, which poses a health hazard, and why wind power plants cannot be placed in areas with the maximum wind.
    Up to 30 percent of the electricity generated by an electrical plant can be wasted in the transmission. Room temperature superconducting wires could change all that, thereby saving significantly on electrical costs and pollution. This could also have a profound impact on global warming. Since the world’s production of carbon dioxide is tightly connected to energy use, and since most of that energy is wasted to overcome friction, the age of magnetism could permanently reduce energy consumption and carbon dioxide production.
    THE MAGNETIC CAR AND TRAIN
    Without any extra input of energy, room temperature superconductors could produce supermagnets capable of lifting trains and cars so they hover above the ground.
    One simple demonstration of this power can be done in any lab. I’ve done it several times myself for BBC-TV and the Science Channel. It’s possible to order a small piece of ceramic high-temperature superconductor from a scientific supply company. It’s a tough, gray ceramic about an inch in size. Then you can buy some liquid nitrogen from a dairy supply company. You place the ceramic in a plastic dish and gently pour the liquid nitrogen over it. The nitrogen starts to boil furiously as it hits the ceramic. Wait until the nitrogen stops boiling, then place a tiny magnet on top of the ceramic. Magically, the magnet floats in midair. If you tap the magnet, it starts to spin by itself. In that tiny dish, you may be staring at the future of transportation around the world.
    The reason the magnet floats is simple. Magnetic lines of force cannot penetrate a superconductor. This is the Meissner effect. (When a magnetic field is applied to a superconductor, a small electric current forms on the surface and cancels it, so the magnetic field is expelled from the