The Complete Aristotle (eng.)

supporters,
extensive territory, and the possession of all, or the most
important, appliances of war. Also if we have wronged no one, or
not many, or not those of whom we are afraid; and generally, if our
relations with the gods are satisfactory, as will be shown
especially by signs and oracles. The fact is that anger makes us
confident-that anger is excited by our knowledge that we are not
the wrongers but the wronged, and that the divine power is always
supposed to be on the side of the wronged. Also when, at the outset
of an enterprise, we believe that we cannot and shall not fail, or
that we shall succeed completely.-So much for the causes of fear
and confidence.
6
    We now turn to Shame and Shamelessness; what follows will
explain the things that cause these feelings, and the persons
before whom, and the states of mind under which, they are felt.
Shame may be defined as pain or disturbance in regard to bad
things, whether present, past, or future, which seem likely to
involve us in discredit; and shamelessness as contempt or
indifference in regard to these same bad things. If this definition
be granted, it follows that we feel shame at such bad things as we
think are disgraceful to ourselves or to those we care for. These
evils are, in the first place, those due to moral badness. Such are
throwing away one’s shield or taking to flight; for these bad
things are due to cowardice. Also, withholding a deposit or
otherwise wronging people about money; for these acts are due to
injustice. Also, having carnal intercourse with forbidden persons,
at wrong times, or in wrong places; for these things are due to
licentiousness. Also, making profit in petty or disgraceful ways,
or out of helpless persons, e.g. the poor, or the dead-whence the
proverb ‘He would pick a corpse’s pocket’; for all this is due to
low greed and meanness. Also, in money matters, giving less help
than you might, or none at all, or accepting help from those worse
off than yourself; so also borrowing when it will seem like
begging; begging when it will seem like asking the return of a
favour; asking such a return when it will seem like begging;
praising a man in order that it may seem like begging; and going on
begging in spite of failure: all such actions are tokens of
meanness. Also, praising people to their face, and praising
extravagantly a man’s good points and glozing over his weaknesses,
and showing extravagant sympathy with his grief when you are in his
presence, and all that sort of thing; all this shows the
disposition of a flatterer. Also, refusing to endure hardships that
are endured by people who are older, more delicately brought up, of
higher rank, or generally less capable of endurance than ourselves:
for all this shows effeminacy. Also, accepting benefits, especially
accepting them often, from another man, and then abusing him for
conferring them: all this shows a mean, ignoble disposition. Also,
talking incessantly about yourself, making loud professions, and
appropriating the merits of others; for this is due to
boastfulness. The same is true of the actions due to any of the
other forms of badness of moral character, of the tokens of such
badness, &c.: they are all disgraceful and shameless. Another
sort of bad thing at which we feel shame is, lacking a share in the
honourable things shared by every one else, or by all or nearly all
who are like ourselves. By ‘those like ourselves’ I mean those of
our own race or country or age or family, and generally those who
are on our own level. Once we are on a level with others, it is a
disgrace to be, say, less well educated than they are; and so with
other advantages: all the more so, in each case, if it is seen to
be our own fault: wherever we are ourselves to blame for our
present, past, or future circumstances, it follows at once that
this is to a greater extent due to our moral badness. We are
moreover ashamed of having done to us, having had done, or being
about to have done to us acts that involve us in dishonour and
reproach; as when we surrender our persons, or lend ourselves to
vile deeds, e.g. when we submit to outrage. And acts of yielding to
the lust of others are shameful whether willing or unwilling
(yielding to force being an instance of unwillingness), since
unresisting submission to them is due to unmanliness or
cowardice.
    These things, and others like them, are what cause the feeling
of shame. Now since shame is a mental picture of disgrace, in which
we shrink