Willpower

7:249–92. For the follow-ups showing how childhood performance predicted adult outcomes, see W. Mischel, Y. Shoda, and P. Peake, “The Nature of Adolescent Competencies Predicted by Preschool Delay of Gratification,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988): 687–96; also, Y. Shoda, W. Mischel, and P. K. Peake, “Predicting Adolescent Cognitive and Self-Regulatory Competencies from Preschool Delay of Gratification: Identifying Diagnostic Conditions,” Developmental Psychology 26 (1990): 978–86.
    10 childhood experiences and adult personality: M. E. P. Seligman, What You Can Change and What You Can’t: The Complete Guide to Successful Self-Improvement (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993).
    11 Losing Control: R. F. Baumeister, T. F. Heatherton, and D. M. Tice, Losing Control: How and Why People Fail at Self-Regulation (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1994).
    11 scale for measuring self-control: The self-control trait scale (along with predictive findings) was published in J. P. Tangney, R. F. Baumeister, and A. L. Boone, “High Self-Control Predicts Good Adjustment, Less Pathology, Better Grades, and Interpersonal Success,” Journal of Personality 72 (2004): 271–322.
    11 self-control predicts college grades: R. N. Wolfe and S. D. Johnson, “Personality as a Predictor of College Performance,” Educational and Psychological Measurement 55 (1995): 177–85. Also see A. L. Duckworth and M. E. P. Seligman, “Self-Discipline Outdoes IQ in Predicting Academic Performance of Adolescents,” Psychological Science 16 (2005): 939–44.
    12 self-control and prisoners: J. Mathews, K. Youman, J. Stuewig, and J. Tangney, “Reliability and Validity of the Brief Self-Control Scale among Incarcerated Offenders” (presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Atlanta, Georgia, November 2007).
    12 New Zealand study: T. Moffitt and twelve other authors, “A Gradient of Self-Control Predicts Health, Wealth, and Public Safety,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (January 24, 2011), http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/01/20/1010076108 .
    12 evolution of brain for self-control: The social brain theory was discussed and compared with the fruit-seeking brain theory and others in several of Dunbar’s works. One key source is R. I. M. Dunbar, “The Social Brain Hypothesis,” Evolutionary Anthropology 6 (1998): 178–90.
    15 animals cannot project into the future: W. A. Roberts, “Are Animals Stuck in Time?” Psychological Bulletin 128 (2002): 473–89.
    16 connecting across time: See M. Donald, A Mind So Rare: The Evolution of Human Consciousness (New York: Norton, 2002); applied specifically to the will, G. Ainslie, Breakdown of Will (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

CHAPTER 1: IS WILLPOWER MORE THAN A METAPHOR?
    19 Amanda Palmer: See her Web site: http://amandapalmer.net/afp/ . The many videos of her on YouTube include some during her early career as a living statue. Photos of her as a living statue are at http://brainwashed.com/amanda/ .
    22 ego-depletion experiments: The radish and chocolate experiment was originally published in R. F. Baumeister, E. Bratlavsky, M. Muraven, and D. M. Tice, “Ego Depletion: Is the Active Self a Limited Resource?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 1252–65. Other early ego-depletion experiments covered in this chapter (including the emotion control, handgrip, and white bear studies) were reported in M. Muraven, D. M. Tice, and R. F. Baumeister, “Self-Control as Limited Resource: Regulatory Depletion Patterns,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 774–89. For a recent overview of the research program, see R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs, and D. M. Tice, “Strength Model of Self-Control,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007): 351–55.
    25 suppressing thoughts: For the early studies on suppressing thoughts (e.g., of white bears, as well as not thinking about your mother) see D. M. Wegner, White Bears and Other Unwanted Thoughts (New York: Vintage, 1989).
    27 no evidence for Freudian sublimation: R. F. Baumeister, K. Dale, and K. L. Sommer, “Freudian Defense Mechanisms and Empirical Findings in Modern Social Psychology: Reaction Formation, Projection, Displacement, Undoing, Isolation, Sublimation, and Denial,” Journal of Personality 66 (1998): 1081–1124.
    28 Michael Inzlict: M. Inzlicht and J. N. Gutsell, “Running on Empty: Neural Signals for