The Complete Aristotle (eng.)

sometimes an argument which has not been properly reasoned
is silly, supposing the assumptions required to be extremely
contrary to the general view or false; but sometimes it ought not
to be held in contempt. For whenever some question is left out, of
the kind that concerns both the subject and the nerve of the
argument, the reasoning that has both failed to secure this as
well, and also failed to reason properly, is silly; but when what
is omitted is some extraneous question, then it is by no means to
be lightly despised, but the argument is quite respectable, though
the questioner has not put his questions well.
    Just as it is possible to bring a solution sometimes against the
argument, at others against the questioner and his mode of
questioning, and at others against neither of these, likewise also
it is possible to marshal one’s questions and reasoning both
against the thesis, and against the answerer and against the time,
whenever the solution requires a longer time to examine than the
period available.
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34
    As to the number, then, and kind of sources whence fallacies
arise in discussion, and how we are to show that our opponent is
committing a fallacy and make him utter paradoxes; moreover, by the
use of what materials solescism is brought about, and how to
question and what is the way to arrange the questions; moreover, as
to the question what use is served by all arguments of this kind,
and concerning the answerer’s part, both as a whole in general, and
in particular how to solve arguments and solecisms-on all these
things let the foregoing discussion suffice. It remains to recall
our original proposal and to bring our discussion to a close with a
few words upon it.
    Our programme was, then, to discover some faculty of reasoning
about any theme put before us from the most generally accepted
premisses that there are. For that is the essential task of the art
of discussion (dialectic) and of examination (peirastic). Inasmuch,
however, as it is annexed to it, on account of the near presence of
the art of sophistry (sophistic), not only to be able to conduct an
examination dialectically but also with a show of knowledge, we
therefore proposed for our treatise not only the aforesaid aim of
being able to exact an account of any view, but also the aim of
ensuring that in standing up to an argument we shall defend our
thesis in the same manner by means of views as generally held as
possible. The reason of this we have explained; for this, too, was
why Socrates used to ask questions and not to answer them; for he
used to confess that he did not know. We have made clear, in the
course of what precedes, the number both of the points with
reference to which, and of the materials from which, this will be
accomplished, and also from what sources we can become well
supplied with these: we have shown, moreover, how to question or
arrange the questioning as a whole, and the problems concerning the
answers and solutions to be used against the reasonings of the
questioner. We have also cleared up the problems concerning all
other matters that belong to the same inquiry into arguments. In
addition to this we have been through the subject of Fallacies, as
we have already stated above.
    That our programme, then, has been adequately completed is
clear. But we must not omit to notice what has happened in regard
to this inquiry. For in the case of all discoveries the results of
previous labours that have been handed down from others have been
advanced bit by bit by those who have taken them on, whereas the
original discoveries generally make advance that is small at first
though much more useful than the development which later springs
out of them. For it may be that in everything, as the saying is,
‘the first start is the main part’: and for this reason also it is
the most difficult; for in proportion as it is most potent in its
influence, so it is smallest in its compass and therefore most
difficult to see: whereas when this is once discovered, it is
easier to add and develop the remainder in connexion with it. This
is in fact what has happened in regard to rhetorical speeches and
to practically all the other arts: for those who discovered the
beginnings of them advanced them in all only a little way, whereas
the celebrities of to-day are the heirs (so to speak) of a long
succession of men who have advanced them bit by bit, and so have
developed them to their present form,